A Century of War

By F. William Engdahl – Unbekoming Book Summary

How to understand the GMC [Global Medical Crisis]?

Was it a clumsy and unfortunate response to an illicit relationship between a bat and a pangolin?

Or was it a clumsy and unfortunate response to an accidental “leak” from a lab, after an employee forgot to wash her hands?

At this stage in 2024, you need to exist in a dream state, an insane illusion, to understand the GMC in either of these two ways.

It was a planned and coordinated geopolitical act of Empire.

But how to understand that if you don’t know what geopolitics is, nor see or understand Empire?

How can you understand it if you don’t know any geopolitical history, nor any history of Empire?

You can’t.

The GMC, within a vacuum, disconnected from history and context, becomes a childlike cartoon about bats, pangolins and hand washing.

Without understanding British Empire, you cannot understand Anglo-American Empire, which means you cannot understand our Empire.

Engdahl, more than anyone, has helped me arrive at a survival level understanding of who and what we are dealing with.

A Century of War by Engdahl is magnificent.

My summary does not do it justice, at all, but it’s better than not reading the book at all.

A Century Of War: Anglo-American Oil (thriftbooks.com)

A Century of War: Anglo-American Oil Politics (Amazon.com)

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A Century Of War By F

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A Century of War by F. William Engdahl

Anglo-American Oil Politics and the New World Order

Questions and Answers

Question 1: What were the three pillars of British imperial power following 1815?

The three pillars of British imperial power following 1815 were control of world sea-lanes, control of world banking and finance, and control of strategic raw materials. British naval superiority ensured domination of global shipping trade, while the City of London's financial institutions manipulated the world's largest monetary gold supply. Additionally, British geopolitical strategy focused on securing vital raw materials, such as cotton, metals, and later, petroleum.

Question 2: How did Britain's shift to free trade in the 1840s impact its domestic agriculture and industry?

Britain's shift to free trade in the 1840s, particularly the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, had a devastating impact on its domestic agriculture and industry. The influx of cheap imported goods led to the ruin of British farmers and a significant decline in agricultural prices. Industrial technology also stagnated as a result of the focus on finance and international trade over domestic investment. This "cheap labor policy" led to falling wages and living standards for the working class.

Question 3: What role did British secret intelligence services play in the empire's global domination during the 19th century?

British secret intelligence services played a crucial role in the empire's global domination during the 19th century. These services operated as a secret network, weaving together the powers of British banking, industry, and government. They wielded immense influence over foreign economies through covert actions and the manipulation of financial markets. British foreign policy was based on calculated "interests" rather than moral principles, allowing for shifting alliances to maintain the balance of power.

Question 4: How did Germany's industrial development in the late 19th century challenge British economic hegemony?

Germany's industrial development in the late 19th century posed a significant challenge to British economic hegemony. Following the adoption of economic reforms and protective tariffs, Germany experienced a rapid growth in industrial output, particularly in steel, chemicals, and electrical goods. German exports began to rival and even surpass those of Britain, while Germany's merchant fleet and naval power grew substantially. This led to increasing tensions between the two nations.

Question 5: What factors led to the Great Depression of 1873 in Britain?

The Great Depression of 1873 in Britain was triggered by a financial crisis in the British banking world, stemming from the collapse of the railway boom in the United States and Europe. The crisis exposed the weaknesses of Britain's economy, which had become overly dependent on international finance and trade at the expense of domestic industrial investment. The adherence to free trade policies and the lack of tariff protection exacerbated the impact of the depression, leading to a prolonged period of economic stagnation.

Question 6: How did the Berlin-Baghdad railway project contribute to tensions between Germany and Britain?

The Berlin-Baghdad railway project was a major source of tension between Germany and Britain in the years leading up to World War I. The railway, which aimed to connect Berlin with Baghdad, was seen by Germany as a means to expand its economic influence in the Middle East and access valuable oil resources. Britain viewed the project as a threat to its own interests in the region, particularly its control over the Suez Canal and access to India. The railway became a symbol of the growing rivalry between the two powers.

Berlin-Baghdad Railway

Question 7: Why did Britain view the growth of the German navy as a threat to its dominance of the seas?

Britain viewed the growth of the German navy as a direct challenge to its long-standing dominance of the seas. Germany's naval expansion, particularly the construction of modern battleships, was seen as an attempt to rival British naval supremacy. The British believed that a strong German navy could threaten their control over vital trade routes and their ability to protect their empire. This naval arms race contributed significantly to the tensions that ultimately led to World War I.

Question 8: What role did oil play in the origins and conduct of World War I?

Oil played a crucial role in the origins and conduct of World War I. As naval warfare shifted from coal to oil-powered vessels, control over oil resources became a strategic priority. Germany's Berlin-Baghdad railway project, which aimed to secure access to Middle Eastern oil, was seen as a threat by Britain. During the war, oil proved to be a decisive factor in military operations, powering ships, vehicles, and aircraft. The Allies' ability to maintain access to oil supplies, while denying them to Germany, contributed to their ultimate victory.

Question 9: How did Britain secure control over Middle Eastern oil resources during and after World War I?

Britain secured control over Middle Eastern oil resources through a combination of military action, diplomacy, and secret agreements. During the war, Britain occupied key areas in the Middle East, including Iraq and Palestine. The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 divided the region into British and French spheres of influence, while the Balfour Declaration of 1917 promised British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. After the war, Britain established protectorates and mandates in the region, ensuring its dominance over the vital oil reserves.

Question 10: What was the significance of the Sykes-Picot agreement for the post-war Middle East?

The Sykes-Picot Agreement, negotiated secretly between Britain and France in 1916, had a profound impact on the post-war Middle East. The agreement divided the region into British and French spheres of influence, disregarding ethnic, religious, and nationalist considerations. It laid the groundwork for the creation of arbitrary borders and the establishment of British and French mandates in the region. The agreement is often seen as a betrayal of Arab interests and a source of ongoing conflicts in the Middle East.

Question 11: How did J.P. Morgan and American banks finance Britain's war effort during World War I?

J.P. Morgan and American banks played a crucial role in financing Britain's war effort during World War I. Morgan acted as Britain's exclusive purchasing agent for war supplies and loans from private U.S. banks. American loans to the Allies, arranged by Morgan, totaled billions of dollars. This financial support allowed Britain to continue its war effort and maintain its global influence, despite the strain on its own economy. The close ties between American banks and the British government laid the foundation for the post-war Anglo-American financial alliance.

Question 12: What was the impact of the Dawes Plan on Germany's economy and reparations payments?

The Dawes Plan, implemented in 1924, had a significant impact on Germany's economy and reparations payments. The plan provided a restructuring of Germany's war reparations, reducing the annual payments and linking them to Germany's ability to pay. It also facilitated the influx of American loans to Germany, which helped to stabilize the German currency and stimulate economic growth. However, the Dawes Plan ultimately led to a dangerous dependence on foreign capital and contributed to the fragility of the German economy in the late 1920s.

Question 13: How did the Anglo-American oil cartel, known as the "Seven Sisters," emerge in the 1920s?

The Anglo-American oil cartel, known as the "Seven Sisters," emerged in the 1920s as a result of a series of agreements between the major British and American oil companies. The Achnacarry Agreement of 1928 established a secret cartel among these companies, which included Anglo-Persian Oil Company (later BP), Royal Dutch Shell, and five American companies (Standard Oil of New Jersey, Gulf Oil, Texaco, Standard Oil of California, and Standard Oil of New York). The cartel aimed to control global oil production, prices, and distribution, ensuring the dominance of Anglo-American interests in the industry.

Question 14: What role did Montagu Norman and Hjalmar Schacht play in the rise of Hitler in Germany?

Montagu Norman, the Governor of the Bank of England, and Hjalmar Schacht, the President of the Reichsbank, played significant roles in the rise of Hitler in Germany. Norman, who had close ties to German financial circles, supported Schacht in his efforts to stabilize the German economy and secure foreign loans. Schacht, in turn, used his position to channel funds to Hitler's Nazi Party and to promote the idea of Hitler as a solution to Germany's economic and political problems. Both Norman and Schacht were instrumental in providing the financial backing and legitimacy that facilitated Hitler's rise to power.

Question 15: How did the Bretton Woods system establish American economic dominance after World War II?

The Bretton Woods system, established in 1944, cemented American economic dominance after World War II. The system created a new international monetary order based on the U.S. dollar, which was pegged to gold at a fixed rate of $35 per ounce. Other currencies were pegged to the dollar, making it the world's reserve currency. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank were created to manage the system and provide financial assistance to member countries. The Bretton Woods system ensured American control over the global financial system and facilitated the expansion of American economic influence worldwide.

Question 16: What were the main features of the Marshall Plan, and how did it shape post-war Europe?

The Marshall Plan, officially known as the European Recovery Program, was a U.S.-sponsored economic aid package for Western Europe following World War II. The main features of the plan included the provision of billions of dollars in grants and loans to European countries for reconstruction, the promotion of economic cooperation and integration among European nations, and the opening of European markets to American goods and investments. The Marshall Plan helped to revitalize European economies, modernize industries, and lay the foundation for the future European Economic Community. It also ensured American influence over the political and economic development of post-war Europe.

Question 17: How did the concentration of economic and financial power in New York banks impact American foreign policy?

The concentration of economic and financial power in New York banks had a significant impact on American foreign policy in the post-war era. These banks, closely tied to the interests of major American corporations and the oil industry, wielded enormous influence over U.S. policy decisions. They pushed for the expansion of American economic and military power abroad, often prioritizing the interests of multinational corporations over domestic concerns. The banks' control over the flow of global capital allowed them to shape the economic policies of foreign governments and international institutions, ensuring American dominance in the world economy.

Question 18: What led to the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company by Iran's Prime Minister Mossadegh, and how did the US and Britain respond?

The nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) by Iran's Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh in 1951 was a response to the company's exploitation of Iranian oil resources and its refusal to renegotiate the terms of its concession. Mossadegh aimed to assert Iran's sovereignty over its natural resources and to secure a fair share of the profits for the Iranian people. The US and Britain, however, saw the nationalization as a threat to their economic and strategic interests in the region. They responded with an economic blockade, a propaganda campaign against Mossadegh, and ultimately, a CIA-orchestrated coup that overthrew the democratically elected prime minister in 1953, reinstating the pro-Western Shah.

Question 19: How did Enrico Mattei and ENI challenge the dominance of the Anglo-American oil companies in the 1950s and 1960s?

Enrico Mattei, the founder of the Italian state-owned oil company ENI (Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi), challenged the dominance of the Anglo-American oil companies in the 1950s and 1960s by offering oil-producing countries more favorable terms and a greater share of the profits. Mattei negotiated groundbreaking deals with countries such as Iran, Egypt, and the Soviet Union, breaking the monopoly of the "Seven Sisters" and providing an alternative to their exploitative practices. ENI's success in securing oil concessions and promoting economic development in oil-producing nations posed a significant threat to the established order in the global oil industry, leading to tensions with the US and Britain.

Question 20: What was the significance of the 1957 Treaty of Rome and the formation of the European Economic Community?

The 1957 Treaty of Rome and the formation of the European Economic Community (EEC) marked a significant step towards European integration and economic cooperation. The treaty established a common market among the six founding members (France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg), eliminating tariffs and promoting the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people. The EEC laid the foundation for the future development of the European Union and provided a framework for economic growth and political stability in post-war Europe. The success of the EEC challenged the economic dominance of the United States and signaled the emergence of a new power bloc in the global economy.

Question 21: How did the US respond to the growing economic power of Germany and the European Common Market in the 1960s?

The United States initially supported the formation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the growing economic power of Germany, seeing it as a means to promote political stability and contain the spread of communism in Europe. However, as the EEC's success began to challenge American economic dominance, the US became increasingly concerned about the potential for a unified European economic bloc to compete with American interests. In response, the US sought to maintain its influence over European affairs through political and military channels, such as NATO, while also pushing for the opening of European markets to American goods and investments. The US also attempted to undermine the Franco-German alliance, which was seen as the driving force behind European integration, by supporting British entry into the EEC and fostering divisions among European countries.

Question 22: What factors led to the collapse of the Bretton Woods system and the end of the gold standard in 1971?

Several factors contributed to the collapse of the Bretton Woods system and the end of the gold standard in 1971. The primary cause was the growing imbalance between the US dollar and gold reserves. As the US economy experienced inflation and trade deficits in the 1960s, largely due to the costs of the Vietnam War and increased domestic spending, the value of the dollar began to decline. At the same time, other countries, particularly France and Germany, began to exchange their dollar reserves for gold, putting pressure on the US gold supply. The Nixon administration's decision to end gold convertibility in 1971 was an attempt to prevent further drains on US gold reserves and to maintain the dollar's position as the world's reserve currency. Other factors, such as the rise of competing economic powers and the lack of flexibility in the fixed exchange rate system, also contributed to the ultimate collapse of the Bretton Woods system.

Question 23: How did the 1973 Yom Kippur War and subsequent oil embargo impact the global economy and balance of power?

The 1973 Yom Kippur War and the subsequent oil embargo by Arab members of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) had a profound impact on the global economy and balance of power. The embargo, which targeted countries supporting Israel during the war, led to a sharp increase in oil prices and a global energy crisis. The price of oil quadrupled, causing inflation, recession, and balance of payments problems for oil-importing nations. The crisis demonstrated the economic and political power of oil-producing countries and challenged the dominance of Western industrialized nations. It also led to a redistribution of wealth from oil-consuming to oil-producing countries, with significant geopolitical consequences. The embargo and its aftermath highlighted the vulnerability of the global economy to oil price fluctuations and the need for alternative energy sources, prompting countries to reassess their energy policies and seek greater energy independence.

Question 24: What role did the Bilderberg Group play in shaping the response to the 1973 oil crisis?

The Bilderberg Group, an informal gathering of influential political, business, and media leaders from North America and Europe, played a significant role in shaping the response to the 1973 oil crisis. In a meeting held in Saltsjöbaden, Sweden, in May 1973, the group discussed the potential for a substantial increase in oil prices and its implications for the global economy. The participants, which included key figures from the oil industry and financial institutions, developed strategies to manage the expected oil price shock and its consequences. These strategies included the "recycling" of petrodollars - the channeling of oil revenues back into Western banks and investments - and the promotion of policies to maintain the dominance of the US dollar in the global financial system. The Bilderberg Group's discussions and decisions helped to shape the official response to the oil crisis and ensured that the interests of Western financial and corporate elites were protected in the face of the economic upheaval.

Bilderberg

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Jimmy Carter

There was a significant connection between the Rockefeller interests and Jimmy Carter's presidency. Carter was chosen and groomed by the Trilateral Commission, a powerful group of international elites led by David Rockefeller, to serve as the U.S. president and advance their global agenda.

1. Selection: In 1975, during a meeting of the Trilateral Commission in Kyoto, Japan, David Rockefeller introduced Jimmy Carter to the group as the potential next president of the United States. This was a year and a half before the 1976 presidential elections, and Carter was a relatively unknown governor from Georgia at the time.

2. Grooming: Following the Kyoto meeting, Carter received extensive media coverage and was hailed as a dynamic leader representing the "New South." This sudden media attention helped boost Carter's national profile and paved the way for his successful presidential campaign.

3. Administration: Once elected, Carter's administration was heavily influenced by members of the Trilateral Commission. Many key positions, including the Vice President (Walter Mondale), Secretary of State (Cyrus Vance), National Security Advisor (Zbigniew Brzezinski), and Secretary of the Treasury (Michael Blumenthal), were filled by Trilateral Commission members, leading to the term "Trilateral Presidency."

4. Policies: Under Carter, the United States continued the Trilateral Commission's agenda of maintaining global economic hegemony and containing the Soviet Union. Carter's foreign policy, particularly in the Middle East and Asia, was shaped by the interests of the Rockefeller-led Trilateral Commission.

5. Iran: The Carter administration's decision to withdraw support for the Shah of Iran and back the Ayatollah Khomeini was influenced by the Trilateral Commission's interests in disrupting Iran's nuclear program and maintaining control over its oil resources.

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Question 25: How did the Anglo-American establishment use the oil crisis to promote a "limits to growth" agenda and curb the development of nuclear energy?

The Anglo-American establishment used the 1973 oil crisis to promote a "limits to growth" agenda and curb the development of nuclear energy as an alternative to oil. Key figures and institutions, such as the Club of Rome, the Ford Foundation, and the Rockefeller family, funded and supported a campaign to popularize the idea that economic growth was unsustainable and that resources, particularly oil, were finite. This campaign emphasized the potential dangers of nuclear energy, such as the risk of accidents and the proliferation of nuclear weapons, while downplaying its benefits as a clean and efficient energy source. The "limits to growth" agenda served the interests of the oil industry by discouraging investment in alternative energy sources and maintaining the global economy's dependence on oil. It also provided a justification for the concentration of economic and political power in the hands of a small elite, who could claim to be managing the world's resources in the face of an impending crisis. The suppression of nuclear energy development ensured that the Anglo-American establishment maintained control over the global energy supply and could continue to shape the geopolitical landscape in its favor.

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Iran – The Shah

The Anglo-American order, particularly the United States and Britain, played a significant role in Iran and the events surrounding the Shah's removal from power in 1979. The U.S. and Britain sought to remove the Shah for several reasons:

1. The Shah had embarked on an ambitious program to develop Iran's nuclear power industry and diversify its energy sources away from oil. This included contracts with France and Germany to construct nuclear power reactors and facilities for the entire nuclear fuel cycle. This move towards energy independence was not in line with the interests of the Anglo-American order.

2. In 1978, Iran was negotiating with British Petroleum (BP) for a renewal of the 25-year oil extraction agreement. However, the talks collapsed when the British "offered" exclusive rights to Iran's future oil output while refusing to guarantee the purchase of the oil. This was a deliberate attempt to put economic pressure on Iran and the Shah's regime.

3. The U.S. and Britain orchestrated a coup against the Shah by supporting the Ayatollah Khomeini and the Islamic opposition. The BBC Persian-language broadcasts played a role in fomenting unrest against the Shah, while the U.S. State Department under Zbigniew Brzezinski and the Carter administration had decided to withdraw support for the Shah and back Khomeini instead.

4. The Shah's downfall and the ensuing chaos in Iran led to a significant disruption in global oil supplies, with Iranian oil exports being cut off. This, combined with a reduction in Saudi Arabian oil production, contributed to the second oil shock of the 1970s and a sharp rise in oil prices. This outcome benefited the interests of the Anglo-American oil companies and their allies.

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Question 26: What was the primary focus of U.S. geopolitics after 1990?

The primary focus of U.S. geopolitics after 1990 was the economic challenge posed by Japan and East Asia, as well as the European Union, to American hegemony. The United States aimed to extend the dollar and its influence into previously closed domains.

Question 27: How did Washington approach extending the dollar and U.S. influence into previously closed domains during the 1990s?

During the 1990s, Washington used the gospel of free-market reform, privatization, and dollar democracy to extend its influence. The Clinton administration targeted former communist economies and any major part of the world that tried to develop its resources independently of the IMF and the dollar world.

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Soweto Riots

The Anglo-American order, particularly the United States and Britain, played a significant role in the Soweto riots and the disruption of potential alliances between South Africa and Germany in the mid-1970s.

1. Soweto riots: The Soweto riots in South Africa, which erupted in May 1976, coincided with a visit by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger to South Africa. The international backlash against the apartheid government's brutal suppression of the riots made it more difficult for European governments, particularly Germany, to establish economic ties with South Africa.

2. Disrupting South Africa-Germany alliance: In the wake of the Soweto riots and the international condemnation of the apartheid regime, the United States and Britain sought to disrupt potential economic alliances between South Africa and Germany. South Africa, at the time, was proposing a revaluation of the price of gold to help finance its economic development and trade with other nations, including Germany. The Anglo-American order saw this as a threat to their interests and worked to undermine such alliances.

3. Suppressing South African development: The Anglo-American order actively worked to suppress South Africa's economic development by pressuring Germany and other European countries to limit their trade and investment ties with the apartheid regime. This was done through a combination of diplomatic pressure, economic sanctions, and the use of events like the Soweto riots to isolate South Africa internationally.

4. Geopolitical benefits: By disrupting potential alliances between South Africa and Germany, and by extension, other European countries, the Anglo-American order sought to maintain its economic and political dominance in the region. This was part of a broader strategy to control the global gold trade and maintain the hegemony of the U.S. dollar as the world's reserve currency.

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Question 28: What was the significance of the collapse of the Soviet Union for Washington's global strategy?

The collapse of the Soviet Union meant that Russia was to be brought into the U.S. economic orbit through the imposition of "market reforms" and dollarization. Additionally, Russia was to be surrounded by a ring of U.S. and NATO military bases to prevent any future strategic alliance between Russia and Continental European powers.

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Ayatollah Khomeini

The Anglo-American order, specifically the United States under the Carter administration, shifted its support from the Shah of Iran to Ayatollah Khomeini during the Iranian Revolution in 1979. This shift had significant implications for Iran's nuclear development, energy independence, and the broader "Arc of Crisis" strategy.

1. Support for Khomeini: In November 1978, President Carter appointed George Ball, a member of the Trilateral Commission, to head a special White House Iran task force. Ball recommended that the U.S. withdraw support for the Shah and instead back Khomeini and the Islamic opposition. This decision was carried out by the State Department under Zbigniew Brzezinski and the CIA.

2. Reasons for the shift: The Anglo-American order shifted its support to Khomeini because the Shah's efforts to develop Iran's nuclear power industry and diversify its energy sources away from oil were seen as a threat to their interests. The Shah had signed contracts with France and Germany to build nuclear reactors and facilities for the entire nuclear fuel cycle, which would have given Iran greater energy independence.

3. Impact on Iran's nuclear development: After the Islamic Revolution and Khomeini's rise to power, Iran's nuclear power program was canceled. In March 1979, the new regime announced the cancellation of the entire program for French and German nuclear reactor construction. This effectively ended Iran's pursuit of nuclear energy and reinforced its dependence on oil.

4. Connection to the "Arc of Crisis": The Iranian Revolution and the installation of the Khomeini regime were part of a broader Anglo-American strategy called the "Arc of Crisis." This strategy, as outlined by Zbigniew Brzezinski, aimed to create instability and unrest in the region stretching from the Middle East to Central Asia, in order to weaken the Soviet Union and maintain Anglo-American dominance. The overthrow of the Shah and the chaos that followed in Iran were seen as contributing to this strategy.

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Question 29: How did Washington aim to prevent the emergence of a Eurasian challenger capable of dominating Eurasia?

Washington's strategy was based on Halford Mackinder's geopolitical theory, which emphasized the importance of controlling the Eurasian landmass. The U.S. aimed to identify and offset, co-opt, or control any potential power capable of dominating Eurasia and thus challenging America.

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Nuclear Technology

The Anglo-American order, actively worked to suppress the spread and development of nuclear technology in various countries during the 1970s and 1980s. This assault was carried out through a combination of political pressure, economic sanctions, and covert actions.

1. Key figures: Several key figures involved in the Anglo-American assault on nuclear technology: a. Henry Kissinger, U.S. Secretary of State, who opposed Pakistan's nuclear reprocessing project and threatened to make a "horrible example" of the country if it did not abandon its nuclear ambitions. b. President Jimmy Carter, whose administration imposed strict restrictions on U.S. nuclear technology exports and pressured other countries to abandon their nuclear programs. c. The Shah of Iran, who was initially supported by the Anglo-American order but later targeted for his efforts to develop Iran's nuclear power industry.

2. Suppressing nuclear technology: The Anglo-American order used various tactics to suppress the development of nuclear technology in countries they perceived as a threat to their interests: a. In Pakistan, Henry Kissinger personally threatened Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto with severe consequences if he did not abandon the country's nuclear reprocessing project with France. Bhutto was later overthrown in a military coup and executed, with his nuclear program being a key factor in his downfall. b. In Iran, the Anglo-American order initially supported the Shah's nuclear power program but later shifted its support to the Islamic opposition led by Ayatollah Khomeini. After the Iranian Revolution, Iran's nuclear program was canceled, setting back the country's nuclear ambitions by decades. c. In Brazil, the United States pressured Germany to cancel a major nuclear technology transfer agreement, which included the construction of uranium enrichment facilities. The U.S. also imposed economic sanctions on Brazil to force it to abandon its nuclear program.

3. Motives behind the assault: The Anglo-American order's assault on nuclear technology was driven by several motives: a. Maintaining control over global energy markets: By suppressing the development of nuclear power in countries like Iran and Brazil, the Anglo-American order sought to maintain their dependence on oil and preserve the dominance of Anglo-American oil companies. b. Preventing the emergence of new regional powers: The spread of nuclear technology was seen as a threat to Anglo-American hegemony, as it could enable countries like Pakistan, Iran, and Brazil to assert greater regional influence and challenge the existing power structure. c. Protecting the monopoly of the Anglo-American nuclear industry: By restricting the transfer of nuclear technology to other countries, the United States and Britain sought to protect the market share and technological edge of their own nuclear industries.

4. Impact on global development: The Anglo-American assault on nuclear technology had a significant impact on global development: a. It hindered the ability of developing countries to achieve energy independence and modernize their economies through the use of nuclear power. b. It reinforced the global dominance of the oil industry and the petrodollar system, which disproportionately benefited the Anglo-American order at the expense of the rest of the world. c. It set back the progress of the global nuclear industry and slowed down the development of new nuclear technologies that could have helped to address global energy and environmental challenges.

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Question 30: What was the purpose of the IMF "market reforms" in the former Soviet Union?

The purpose of the IMF "market reforms" was to destroy the economic ties that bound Moscow to each part of the Soviet Union, creating weak, unstable economies on the periphery of Russia that were dependent on Western capital and dollar inflows for survival - a form of neocolonialism.

Question 31: How did the IMF reforms impact the Russian economy and population?

The IMF reforms led to a collapse in industrial production, hyperinflation, and a dramatic decline in living standards for the majority of Russians. The ruble's free float resulted in a 9,900% increase in consumer prices and an 84% collapse in real wages within a year.

Question 32: What was the role of the National Endowment for Democracy (NED) in Yugoslavia?

The National Endowment for Democracy (NED) played a crucial role in destabilizing Yugoslavia by financing opposition groups, trade unions, and NGOs. The NED's activities were aimed at creating economic chaos and fostering the breakup of the country.

Question 33: How did the IMF and other U.S.-backed institutions contribute to economic chaos in Yugoslavia?

The IMF demanded that Yugoslavia implement structural reforms, leading to a sharp decline in GDP, industrial production, and a rise in unemployment. The IMF also prevented the Yugoslav government from obtaining credit from its central bank, crippling its ability to finance social programs and contributing to the country's economic disintegration.

Question 34: What was the strategic importance of the Balkans for the European Union's energy security strategy?

The Balkans were a central part of the European Union's energy security strategy, as they provided potential pipeline routes for oil and gas from the Caspian Sea region. Stability in the Balkans was crucial for the EU to secure alternative energy supplies and reduce dependence on U.S. and Russian-controlled sources.

Question 35: How did the U.S. military intervention in the Balkans impact potential pipeline routes for Caspian oil?

The U.S. military intervention in the Balkans, particularly the Kosovo war, allowed Washington to secure control over potential pipeline routes for Caspian oil. By establishing a strong military presence in the region, the U.S. preempted the development of alternative routes that could have provided the EU with greater energy independence.

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Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Thatcher's government promoted a consumer fraud in Britain that served the interests of the Anglo-American order, particularly the oil and finance sectors, while causing significant harm to the local economy and population.

1. The consumer fraud: Thatcher and her government claimed that government deficit spending, rather than the 140% increase in oil prices since the fall of the Shah in Iran, was the main cause of Britain's high inflation rate of 18%. They argued that by cutting government spending and the money supply, inflation could be brought down. This narrative was promoted despite evidence to the contrary.

2. Serving the Anglo-American order: By promoting this consumer fraud, Thatcher served the interests of the Anglo-American order in several ways: a. Cutting government spending and implementing austerity measures aligned with the neoliberal economic policies favored by the Anglo-American elite, which sought to reduce the role of the state in the economy. b. Focusing on fighting inflation through monetary policy, rather than addressing the root cause of the oil price shock, deflected attention away from the role of the Anglo-American order in creating the crisis. c. The resulting economic hardship and social unrest in Britain helped to justify further interventions by the Anglo-American order, such as IMF loans and structural adjustment programs, which served to reinforce their economic and political dominance.

3. Dramatic interest rate increase: Thatcher's government, in pursuit of its monetarist policies, raised interest rates dramatically. Within three months of taking office, the base interest rate was increased from 12% to 17%, a 42% increase. This was the most severe interest rate shock imposed on any industrialized nation since World War II.

4. Impact on the local economy: The dramatic interest rate increase had a devastating impact on the British economy and population: a. Businesses went bankrupt due to the high cost of borrowing, leading to a sharp rise in unemployment. b. Homeowners struggled to pay their mortgages, leading to a wave of foreclosures and a housing crisis. c. The manufacturing sector was hit particularly hard, with industrial output and investment plummeting. d. The overall economy entered a deep recession, with GDP contracting and living standards falling for much of the population.

5. Benefiting the Anglo-American order: Despite the local devastation caused by Thatcher's policies, they ultimately served the interests of the Anglo-American oil and finance sectors: a. High-interest rates attracted foreign capital to Britain, particularly from the United States, which helped to strengthen the position of the City of London as a global financial center. b. The recession and high unemployment in Britain helped to suppress wage growth and inflation, which benefited multinational corporations and investors. c. The privatization of state-owned assets, which was accelerated under Thatcher, provided new opportunities for Anglo-American companies to acquire valuable resources and market share in Britain.

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Question 36: What was the primary reason for Washington's focus on Iraq in the early 2000s?

The primary reason for Washington's focus on Iraq was its vast undeveloped oil reserves, which were believed to be even larger than those of Saudi Arabia. Securing control over Iraq's oil resources was crucial for the U.S. to maintain its global dominance in the face of potential energy shortages.

Question 37: What did the Project for the New American Century (PNAC) propose regarding U.S. global dominance and military presence in the Persian Gulf?

The Project for the New American Century (PNAC) proposed that the United States should aim to preserve and extend its advantageous position as the world's sole superpower. It emphasized the need for a substantial American force presence in the Persian Gulf, transcending the issue of Saddam Hussein's regime.

Question 38: How did the September 11, 2001 attacks influence U.S. foreign policy and military strategy?

The September 11, 2001 attacks provided the Bush administration with a pretext to launch the "War on Terror," which was used to justify military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq. The attacks also led to a shift in U.S. foreign policy, with a greater emphasis on unilateral action and preemptive warfare.

Question 39: What was the significance of the U.S. military campaign in Afghanistan for securing pipeline routes?

The U.S. military campaign in Afghanistan removed the Taliban regime, which had been an obstacle to the construction of a pipeline from Turkmenistan to Pakistan and India. With the Taliban gone, the U.S.-backed Afghan government could proceed with plans for the pipeline project.

Question 40: What was the real motivation behind the U.S. invasion of Iraq, according to critics?

Critics argued that the real motivation behind the U.S. invasion of Iraq was to secure control over the country's vast oil resources, rather than the stated goals of removing weapons of mass destruction or fighting terrorism. The invasion was seen as part of a broader strategy to dominate global energy supplies.

Question 41: How did geologists' predictions about peak oil production influence U.S. foreign policy?

Geologists' predictions about an imminent peak in global oil production had a significant influence on U.S. foreign policy. The prospect of a sudden, unexpected global peak in oil supplies drove the Bush administration to take aggressive military action to secure control over key oil-producing regions, particularly in the Middle East.

Question 42: What were the implications of a potential global peak in oil production for the world economy?

A global peak in oil production would have devastating consequences for the world economy, as it would lead to a dramatic increase in energy costs and a potential collapse of the global economic system, which is heavily dependent on cheap, abundant oil. The U.S. sought to mitigate these risks by securing control over remaining oil resources.

Question 43: How did the U.S. military secure control over strategic energy routes and resources worldwide?

The U.S. military secured control over strategic energy routes and resources worldwide through a combination of direct military intervention, the establishment of military bases in key regions, and political influence over oil-producing countries. Examples include the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, military presence in the Balkans, and expanding influence in Africa and Latin America.

Question 44: What was the purpose of the U.S. military's "full spectrum dominance" strategy?

The purpose of the U.S. military's "full spectrum dominance" strategy was to ensure that the United States could control military, economic, and political developments everywhere. By securing a near monopoly on future energy resources, the U.S. aimed to maintain its global hegemony and dictate the terms of economic development worldwide.

Question 45: How did the U.S. approach to global hegemony differ between the 1970s and the early 2000s?

In the 1970s, the U.S. approach to global hegemony relied on the IMF and World Bank to impose "limits to growth" on developing countries, artificially depressing global oil demand and allowing the U.S. to continue importing cheap oil. By the early 2000s, with an absolute peak in oil production approaching, the U.S. shifted to a more aggressive strategy of direct military control over key oil-producing regions.

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Mexico

The Anglo-American order, took several steps to suppress Mexico's economic development and bring its policies in line with the interests of the oil and finance empires.

1. Suppressing Mexico's industrialization: Under President José López Portillo, Mexico had embarked on an ambitious industrialization program, using its oil wealth to modernize the country's infrastructure and develop industries such as petrochemicals, agriculture, and nuclear power. However, the Anglo-American order saw this as a threat to their interests and worked to undermine Mexico's efforts.

2. Orchestrating capital flight: The U.S. government, through organizations like the Probe International consultancy, deliberately fostered capital flight out of Mexico in the early 1980s. This was done by planting articles in U.S. media suggesting that Mexican businessmen were losing confidence in the country's economy and moving their money to the United States. This capital flight put pressure on Mexico's currency and foreign exchange reserves.

3. Pressuring Mexico to abandon trade protections: The Anglo-American order, through institutions like the IMF and the World Bank, pressured Mexico to abandon its protectionist trade policies and open up its economy to foreign competition. This made it more difficult for Mexican industries to compete against cheaper imports and hindered the country's industrialization efforts.

4. Forcing a devaluation of the Mexican peso: In February 1982, after months of orchestrated capital flight and economic pressure, the Mexican government was forced to devalue the peso by 30% against the U.S. dollar. This devaluation made Mexico's foreign debt, which was denominated in dollars, much more expensive to service and pushed the country to the brink of default.

5. Imposing IMF austerity measures: In exchange for financial assistance to help Mexico manage its debt crisis, the IMF demanded that the country implement strict austerity measures, including cuts to government spending, reduced subsidies for essential goods, and further deregulation of the economy. These measures effectively reversed much of Mexico's progress towards industrialization and left the country more dependent on oil exports and foreign investment.

6. Benefiting U.S. banks and oil companies: The Anglo-American order's actions in Mexico primarily benefited U.S. banks, which were heavily exposed to Mexican debt, and U.S. oil companies, which gained greater access to Mexico's oil reserves. By forcing Mexico to prioritize debt repayment over domestic development, the U.S. ensured that a significant portion of Mexico's oil revenues would flow back to U.S. financial institutions.

7. Tying Mexico to the U.S. economy: The economic reforms imposed on Mexico by the Anglo-American order, including trade liberalization and financial deregulation, effectively tied the Mexican economy more closely to the United States. This made Mexico more vulnerable to economic shocks originating in the U.S. and gave the U.S. greater leverage over Mexican policy-making.

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Question 46: What role did the IMF play in maintaining the illusion of prosperity in industrialized nations?

The IMF played a central role in maintaining the illusion of prosperity in industrialized nations by artificially depressing the industrialization of most of the planet, thereby reducing global demand for oil. This allowed the U.S. and other wealthy nations to continue enjoying an illusion of prosperity based on cheap, abundant oil imports.

Question 47: How did the U.S. respond to the imminent world peak in oil resources?

As the world approached an imminent peak in oil resources, the United States adopted unilateral measures to preserve its power, such as rejecting the Kyoto protocol, refusing to accept the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, and invading Iraq. The U.S. sought to secure direct control over remaining oil resources to maintain its global dominance.

Question 48: What was the significance of the U.S. military's near monopoly on future energy resources following the occupation of Iraq?

With the occupation of Iraq, the United States gained a near monopoly on future energy resources, giving it unprecedented power to control the economic development of much of the world. By controlling access to vital energy resources, the U.S. could potentially dictate the terms of economic growth and political decision-making in countries dependent on oil imports.

Question 49: How did critics view America's imperial ambitions in the early 2000s?

Critics viewed America's imperial ambitions in the early 2000s as a consequence of its fundamental weakness rather than its strength. They argued that the U.S. was attempting to compensate for its economic and political vulnerabilities by resorting to military force and unilateral action to secure control over vital resources and maintain its global hegemony.

Question 50: What potential alternative coalition of interests did some observers project as a counterbalance to U.S. hegemony?

Some observers, such as Emmanuel Todd, projected a potential alternative coalition of interests between a French and German-centered Europe and Russia as a counterbalance to U.S. hegemony. This combination of Eurasian land powers was seen as a potential threat to American dominance, as warned by geopolitical theorists like Halford Mackinder and Zbigniew Brzezinski. However, by early 2004, this potential coalition was in disarray and faced internal divisions.

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